Part 51 Timeline_the untold

Part 51 Timeline_the untold_the retold

Part 51
Article: Timeline
My Blog Title: The untold the retold

Click on PDF to download from Part 1

COLUMN R

1279–1368 AD

Yuan Dynasty & Mongol

元朝 16 Emperors

Duration: 89 Years

21,061,490 is only inclusive of divided number in each respective total period from Reconquista Iberian Peninsula, Crusades, Mongol conquests, Wars of Scottish Independence, Hundred Years' War in Western Europe, while the balance of Massacre, Natural calamities and Famine are not calculated in this statistic.

From [https://www.worldhistory.org]: The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongols and ruled China from 1271 to 1368. Their first emperor was Kublai Khan 1260–1294 who finally defeated the Song Dynasty which had reigned in China since 960. Stability and peace within China brought a certain economic prosperity for some as Kublai and his successors promoted international trade which saw the now-unified country open up to the wider world. While there was peace in the western part of the Mongol Empire, Kublai launched two unsuccessful invasions of Japan and several others elsewhere in South East Asia. The Mongols' reign in China was finally ended due to a lethal cocktail of endless infighting amongst their leaders, inept or unsuitable and corrupt government which overspent and overtaxed, floods and famines. Peasant uprisings rumbled throughout the 14th century until one, led by the Red Turban Movement, toppled the Yuan and brought in a new regime, the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644). Kublai ensured that Mongols always gained an advantage in China by officially classing them as superior in rank to Chinese. The four official Yuan ranks, based on perceived loyalty to the Yuan rulers, were: 1st: Mongols; 2nd: Semu - people from Central Asia and/or speakers of Turkic languages; 3rd: Hanren - northern Chinese, Tibetans, Khitans, Jurchen and others; 4th: Nanren - southern Chinese formally ruled by the Song. Being a member of one of the above four classes had repercussions for an individual's tax status, their treatment by the judicial system and their eligibility for positions in the state administration (there was a 25% capped quota for southern Chinese, for example). Differences in treatment included northern Chinese being taxed by their household while southern Chinese had to pay according to the area of land they owned. Punishments were a particularly striking area of difference with, for example, a Mongol found guilty of murder only having to pay a fine while a southern Chinese convicted of mere theft was fined and then tattooed as a criminal. The new law code introduced in 1270, however, had only 135 capital crimes, half of those in the code used by the Song. At least traditional religions were permitted to continue as long as they did not threaten the state, although Buddhism was generally favoured over the traditional Chinese Confucianism. The Mongols' own preference for shamanism showed no signs of change, although Kublai himself converted to Tibetan (Lamaist) Buddhism. Further, despite the obvious discrimination, southerners kept their classical Chinese culture very much alive through private meetings and the arts, often producing paintings, poetry and plays which conveyed within them subtle or nonviolent protests against the Yuan regime. The latter art form, which included puppet theatre as well as live actors, boomed under the Yuan because of its visual appeal and striking stories; the Mongols, unable to speak Chinese, had little time for prose and poetry. Japan was twice invaded (1274 and 1281), but each time staunch resistance and fortuitous storms, the kamikaze or 'divine winds', forced a retreat. Like Japan, Southeast Asia was attacked in various land and naval campaigns but they also proved an elusive prize with invasions of Vietnam (1281 and 1286), Burma (1277 and 1287), and Java (1292) achieving only limited success but at least gaining regular tribute from the Pagan kingdom in Burma and the Champa and Dai Viet kingdoms of Vietnam. It seemed that conducting naval warfare overseas and the unfamiliar climate of Southeast Asia were insurmountable obstacles to Yuan expansion. Kublai never gave up on Japan, though, and continued to send unsuccessful diplomatic missions to persuade the country to join the Chinese tribute system. In other parts of Asia, to the west, there was relative peace, the so-called Pax Mongolica, although there was a major rebellion in Tibet in the early 1290s, and the other descendants of Genghis Khan, especially the Ogedeids, continued to nibble at China's western borders. Nevertheless, the Mongols as a group, by forging an empire from the Black Sea to the Korean peninsula (even if it was now split into large khanates ruled by Genghis Khan's descendants) had managed to expose China to a wider world. This was especially so in regard to the west with contacts through Persia and, thanks to missionaries, ambassadors, and travellers like Marco Polo (1254-1324), Europe. Between 1275 and 1292, Marco served Kublai Khan, seemingly in the capacity of a roving ambassador/reporter on the more remote parts of the Mongol Empire. Definition from [AI overview]: Roving ambassador/reporter: In the Middle Ages, permanent resident embassies did not exist; diplomacy was carried out by itinerant envoys (nuntii and procuratores) who traveled continuously across foreign courts. The term "ambassador" itself originates from the medieval Latin ambasiator, meaning a "servant" or "circuit-rider" sent to deliver messages and negotiate on behalf of a lord. On his return home, Marco wrote of his experiences in his book The Travels of Marco Polo, first circulated 1298. His descriptions are amongst our best sources for the Yuan Dynasty and the emperor, in particular. Of more concrete benefit to the Mongols and Chinese than world fame, the Yuan did promote international trade, too. Artisans and craftworkers were given a more elevated status than previously and given tax exemptions. Merchants, not being producers but 'exchangers,' had been discriminated against under the Song, and these, too, now benefitted from more favourable tax measures, low-cost loans and the end of sumptuary regulations. Definition from [AI overview]: Medieval sumptuary laws were regulations that dictated what individuals could wear, eat, or own based on their social rank. Merchants were encouraged to use paper money, currency exchanges were better regulated, and more roads, canals (including the Grand Canal connecting southern and northern China), and use of ocean-going ships aided the transport of goods. The effect of these policies was to create a boom in crafts and trade, especially of silk and fine porcelain, the latter product now being supervised by a specific government agency, paving the way for the later Ming potters to gain worldwide fame of their own. Definition from [AI overview]: Ming Dynasty potters revolutionized ceramics by mastering cobalt blue-and-white wares and refining kaolin clay mixtures. High-fired porcelain reached between 1,280°C and 1,400°C, while low-fire colored glazes required 800°C to 900°C. Trade also brought a greater exchange of ideas and technologies such as Persian expertise in astronomical observations, maps, luxury textile weaving, and irrigation coming to China, and gunpowder weapons, printing, the mariner's compass, and paper money to the west. Islam also spread further to the east as merchants crisscrossed Asia.

The next 42 items of “COLUMN R” 1279 to 1368 AD continued on Parts [52 to 63]

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Music Source and Titles: Pixabay.com

[Content composition of “In-Brief Archives Facebook Page” and of my blogger page “www.ilovemytimeoranothertimeofyours.blogspot.com” in sound and music does not represent the picture, video and text contents.] [Music volume is increased if deviated from the actual files.]

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Picture sources if any: Peakpx.com and Pexels, Pixabay in PowerDirector and other websites:

2:https://alchetron.com/Yuan-dynasty

3:https://bookofworldhistory.com/blog/yuan-dynasty-history-kublai-khan-mongol-china-1271-1368

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