Part 57 Timeline_the untold

Part 57 Timeline_the untold_the retold

Part 57
Article: Timeline
My Blog Title: The untold the retold

Click on PDF to download from Part 1

COLUMN R

1279–1368 AD

Yuan Dynasty & Mongol

元朝 16 Emperors

Duration: 89 Years

•Mongol conquests [death toll 34,641,016÷2] 1206–1368 AD

From [AI overview]: During the medieval era, sedentary dynasties were characterized by permanent capital cities, complex bureaucratic administration, and economies based on agriculture and organized trade. Sedentary Dynasties (Agricultural): Relied on intensive farming, grain production, and permanent city networks. Wealth and taxation were tied to land and massive trade networks (e.g., the Song or Ming Dynasties in China, or the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East). Medieval Mongol empires contrasted sharply with sedentary dynasties in their economy, governance, and military foundations. Mongols were nomadic pastoralists operating a highly mobile, mobile horse-archer military and decentralized tribal rule. Conversely, sedentary dynasties relied on agriculture, urban cities, and rigid bureaucracies. How it Started (1206–1220s) Trade Disputes: Mongol expansion began as a response to economic blockades. Neighboring sedentary dynasties in north and northwest China reduced vital trade with the Mongols, prompting Genghis Khan to launch raids and invasions for resources. Early Campaigns: The Mongols first conquered the Western Xia (Tanguts) and the Jin dynasty of North China, capturing Beijing in 1215. Western Expansion: After the Khwarazmian Empire in Central Asia killed Mongol trade envoys, Genghis Khan sent an army to obliterate the shah or Persian ruler, sweeping through Persia and reaching as far as Russia by 1223. Middle East: Möngke's brother Hulagu conquered Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 1258, and ended the 500-year-old Abbasid Dynasty. Europe: Mongol forces swept into Eastern Europe (including Kievan Rus) in 1237, reaching Hungary before retreating to Mongolia in 1241 due to Ögedei Khan's death. Ögedei Khan died in December 1241 from complications tied to excessive alcohol consumption. His passing immediately halted the advancing Mongol invasion of Western Europe. Because Mongol custom required princes and generals to return to the capital, Karakorum, for the election of a new leader, Europe was saved from further conquest. Ögedei Khan, the third son and chosen successor of Genghis Khan, was the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. He expanded the empire across Asia and Eastern Europe but struggled with severe alcoholism. Despite attempts by his family to limit his drinking, he famously outsmarted them by using larger cups. These heavy drinking bouts ultimately led to his death on December 11, 1241. Drinking bouts are extended periods or sessions of heavy, continuous alcohol consumption. Also referred to as drinking binges or benders, they typically involve intensive drinking over several hours, days, or even weeks. Halt of the European Campaign: At the time of Ögedei Khan’s death, Mongol forces under Batu Khan and Subutai were poised to invade Western Europe and were advancing on Vienna, a prominent capital of the Holy Roman Empire. The news forced all top-ranking commanders to abandon their westward push and travel thousands of miles back to Mongolia for the kurultai (the leadership election). In his work “The Travels of Marco Polo”, he recorded that Genghis Khan died from a poisoned arrow to the knee during his final invasion of the Western Xia in 1227. This version of events is just one of several conflicting historical theories; for example, other sources claim he died from an illness or a fall from a horse. Because protecting the location of the burial was critical, Marco Polo recorded a dramatic and extensive funeral process. Elimination of Witnesses: According to Marco Polo’s accounts, a group of guards killed the 2,000 slaves who attended the funeral to keep the location secret. Executing the Guards: These guards were then killed by another group of soldiers. Extreme Secrecy: These secondary soldiers killed anyone or anything they crossed along the path, eventually committing suicide to ensure the burial site remained entirely unknown. Genghis Khan died in August 1227 during a military campaign in northwest China. Because of the extreme measures his followers took to conceal his final resting place, the exact location of his tomb remains an unsolved archaeological mystery to this day. The Four Khanates and Their Dynasties: Following Genghis Khan's death, his vast empire was subdivided among his descendants. By the late 13th century, it fragmented into four major, independent states, each integrating with or giving rise to distinct dynasties: The Yuan Dynasty (East Asia): Founded by Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, in 1271. Kublai conquered the Southern Song dynasty in 1279, becoming the first non-Han Chinese emperor to rule all of China. The Ilkhanate (Persia & the Middle East): Ruled by Genghis Khan's grandson, Hulagu Khan. His forces captured Baghdad in 1258 and dismantled the Abbasid Caliphate. The Ilkhanate eventually adopted Islam and patronized Persian art and architecture. In art history, "patronized Persian art and architecture" refers to creative works and monumental buildings funded, commissioned, and directed to legitimize their rule, display imperial power, and reflect the cultural diversity of their empires. The Golden Horde (Eastern Europe): Established by Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, this khanate controlled a large portion of the Eurasian steppe, including parts of Russia, for centuries. Kievan Rus (1237–1240): Mongol armies devastated Russian principalities, incorporating them into the newly formed Golden Horde. A dynasty is the who (the ruling family); a principality is the what (a specific type of territory); and an empire is the scale (a vast, multi-ethnic collection of states). The Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia): Founded by Genghis Khan's second son, it remained a largely nomadic, steppe-based empire and later produced leaders like Timur (Tamerlane). How it Finished: In China, over-taxation, corruption, resentment against foreign rule, combined with peasant unrest and flooding, sparked uprisings. A peasant monk named Hongwu overthrew the Mongols and established the Ming Dynasty in 1368. The Mongol Empire did not fall in a single defeat, but rather shattered from within. Frequent succession crises and civil wars fractured the vast territory into four independent khanates. Succession Crises & Fragmentation: After the death of Mongke Khan in 1259, the empire erupted into civil war. The ruling family split the empire into four distinct, independent states: the Yuan Dynasty (China), the Ilkhanate (Persia), the Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia), and the Golden Horde (Russia/Eastern Europe). The unified empire effectively ended in 1368, when native Chinese forces overthrew the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty and established the Ming Dynasty. In Eastern Europe: The Golden Horde fractured into smaller khanates by the 15th century, ultimately falling as the power of the Russian Tsars (Muscovy) grew. Loss of China (1368): In China, the Yuan Dynasty suffered from financial strain, failed military campaigns (like the attempted invasions of Japan and Java), and plague. In 1368, rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang successfully captured the capital and established the native Ming Dynasty, driving the Mongols back to their original steppe homelands. Cultural Assimilation: The Mongols originally hailed from a harsh nomadic background but found themselves ruling over millions of settled, urbanized people. Over time, regional khans and their armies culturally assimilated into the local populations. For example, the Ilkhans converted to Islam and adopted Persian customs, while the Golden Horde adopted Turkic language and culture. Revolts and External Pressures: Once the Mongols could no longer maintain cohesive military cooperation between regions, local populations began to rebel. The Golden Horde faced major internal decline following the Black Death and was defeated by a Muscovy-led coalition in 1380. Eventually, continued Ming Dynasty incursions into the Mongolian steppes further fractured remaining Mongol unity.

The next 21 items of “COLUMN R” 1279 to 1368 AD continued on Parts [58 to 63]

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