Part 14 The world, from the past to the present, retold from the timelines.

Part 14

Article: Biotechnology

My Blog Title: The world, from the past to the present, retold from the timelines.

Click on PDF to download from Part 3

5th Industrial Revolution - Personalisation

[“Human and AI” “Science-Info-Tech”]

From Current Dates to 2020 AD

[Refer to Part 1 to 3 for the explanatory overview of how the contents are structured and timelines are mapped.]

2023: Notable innovations: a large language model (ProGen) that could generate functional protein sequences with a predictable function, with the input including tags specifying protein properties. Put simply, syntax refers to grammar, while semantics refers to meaning. Syntax is the set of rules needed to ensure a sentence is grammatically correct; semantics is how one's lexicon or all the vocabularies, grammatical structure, tone, and other elements of a sentence coalesce or combine to communicate its meaning. Analogous to natural language, we could interpret the primary sequence of proteins as a language with its own syntactical rules and semantics (Ofer et al., 2021), wherein the 20 common amino acids plus other unconventional and rare amino acids constitute the letters of the alphabet. Moreover, like natural languages, proteins can be composed of reusable modular elements presenting slight variations that could be rearranged and assembled in a hierarchical structure. A motif is a chain-like biological structure made up of connectivity between secondary structural pieces, whereas a domain is a three-dimensional protein structure's independent folding unit. Motifs and domains could be related to words and syntactic structures of natural language, while an entire amino acid sequence was analogous to a sentence of a natural language encoding its structure and function. The definition of a polypeptide chain is a string of amino acids connected together by peptide bonds. The word poly means many, and the word peptide refers to proteins. So, a polypeptide chain is a chain of the building blocks of proteins or amino acids. Polypeptide chains are important because they make up proteins. Moreover, multiple polypeptide chains that assemble in a quaternary structure were analogous to sentences that form a longer text. Protein quaternary structure is the fourth (and highest) classification level of protein structure. Protein quaternary structure refers to the structure of proteins which are themselves composed of two or more smaller protein chains (also referred to as subunits). Protein quaternary structure describes the number and arrangement of multiple folded protein subunits in a multi-subunit complex. As outlined in Ferruz and Höcker (2022), natural language and proteins have parallel origins and evolution. New words are continuously introduced in languages for expressing new concepts under the pressure of socio-cultural evolution, and natural evolution shapes novel proteins that better fit the environment. Moreover, both natural language words and amino acids were affected by context: their meaning depended on their surrounding elements. Sentences in natural language also present long-distance dependencies (e.g., subjects across sentences in long text). These dependencies were also present in proteins where amino acids distant in the primary structure can be connected in their tertiary and quaternary structure. Adding, removing, or changing a single letter in a natural language sentence can change its meaning or render it meaningless, similar to how a single mutation can cause a loss or gain of function in a protein leading to disruptive pathogenic effects. A pathogen is any organism that causes disease. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites are all examples of pathogens. Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited blood disorders. Abnormal hemoglobin is produced. Red blood cells become hard and sticky and get stuck in small blood vessels, resulting in pain and other serious complications.

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1:https://www.nextias.com/blog/proteins/

2:https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36702895/